ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPLICATION OF OPEN DEFECATION
ABSTRACT
Open defecation is the act of passing excreta in open air locations instead of in hygienic, covered locations. Efforts to eradicate open defecation and improve sanitation access are unlikely to achieve health benefits unless interventions reduce microbial exposures. The study was carried out to assess the Environmental and Health Implication of Open Defecation. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out to assess the relationship between sanitation practices and the bacteriological quality of drinking water sources, determine the risk factors contributing to open defecation in the rural environments of the study area, and assess the water quality index and multivariate analysis for groundwater quality assessment of villages of rural in Delta State. Data were collected from the primary source which questionnaire was used as an instrument of data collection while secondary data were sources from textbooks, journals, newspapers and the internet were employed. This study will be of immense benefit to researchers who intend to know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other study.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Open defecation is the act of passing excreta in open air locations instead of in hygienic, covered locations. The phenomenon does not just occur in the rural areas of Nigeria but also in the cities, and among the educated class in public tertiary institutions, business and residential areas. Over 47 million Nigerians defecate openly in and on bushes, gutters, sidewalks, motor parks, recreation parks, rivers and streets amongst others. Some efforts have been made over the decades to reduce the cases of open defecation in Nigeria. Regrettably, they remain mainly efforts, with only 14 of 774 local governments in the country free of open defecation (Paul, 2019).
As a prelude to other parts of this study, this chapter will discuss the background upon which this study was initiated, the statement of problems that led to this study, the Aim and Objectives of the study. Others are Significance of the study, Scope of work, Limitation of the study and Definition of technical terms.
1.2 Background of Study
Environmental Sanitation has been declared as a human right by the United Nations (WHO, 2015). The United Nations post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals, 3 and 6 targets, are aimed at ensuring universal access to safe and affordable drinking water, respectively, by 2030 (United Nations, 2014).
Efforts to eradicate open defecation and improve sanitation access are unlikely to achieve health benefits unless interventions reduce microbial exposures. As millions of people worldwide continue to rely on shallow groundwater sources and on-site sanitation, it is important to develop an understanding of the causes of microbiological contamination of groundwater when considering the potential for improvement in water supplies and sanitation. It is against this background that this study was conceived to assess the contribution of open defecation on the bacteriological contamination of drinking water sources in Delta State, Nigeria.
Eliminating open defecation is increasingly seen as a key health outcome. Open defecation is the practice of defaecating in the fields, bushes, and bodies of water or other open spaces. An area is generally ‘open defecation free’ (ODF) when there is the absence of the practice of open defecation in such a location. Implicitly it means that all members of that community have access to and are using a latrine. According to the 2015 Sanitation Update report by World Health Organization (WHO), close to 1.3 billion people were practising open defecation, whereas another 2.6 billion people lack access to improved sanitation, almost all in developing countries and predominantly in rural environments (WHO, 2015). It is also estimated that 663 million people worldwide still used un-improved drinking water sources, including un-protected wells and springs and surface water, most of them living in 2 developing regions of sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia (WHO, 2010).
Despite recent improvements in the sanitation sector, open defecation still remains a widespread health and environmental hazard challenge that particularly needs to be addressed among many developing countries (Galan et al., 2013). This lack of improved sanitation access contributes to a large global health burden, including mortality, diarrhoea, trachoma, and helminthic infections. Initiatives to improve sanitation situation has proved fruitful in certain regions of the world. For instance, in Zimbabwe, a simple comparison of 2 communities, 1 with 67% latrine coverage and 1 with no latrines, found that the community with latrines had a 68% lower diarrhoeal prevalence (Root, 2001).
The water sources could, however, harbour many microbial pathogens, even where the water is clear and perceived to be clean. The factors leading to contamination of water sources are often not well-understood but are frequently ascribed to pollution by on-site sanitation facilities such as pit latrines and defecation along boundaries of water sources as these represent an obvious source of faecal contamination (Howard et al., 2013).
Challenges in setting up potable water supplies for communities have been a matter under discussion. Most cited reasons range from poor quality of borehole water, high seepage rates of water pans, and seasonality of streams (Hazra, 2013). Sustainability of existing water projects has also proved difficult owing to poor management systems. Worse enough, prevailing poor sanitation conditions pose the greatest threat to water points. Previous studies in both urban and rural areas have concluded that contamination from on-site sanitation is a principal cause of contamination of water sources (Howard et al., 2013).
Therefore, in Nigeria where the research was carried out, the activities that was conducted is to know the Environmental and Health Implication of Open Defecation.
1.3 Statement of Problems
Investigation reveals the problems of the Environmental and Health Implication of Open Defecation research work which entails that, Eliminating open defecation is increasingly seen as a key health outcome. Open defecation is the practice of defecating in the fields, bushes, and bodies of water or other open spaces.
Challenges in setting up potable water supplies for communities have been a matter under discussion. Most cited reasons range from poor quality of borehole water, high seepage rates of water pans, and seasonality of streams (Hazra, 2013). Sustainability of existing water projects has also proved difficult owing to poor management systems. Worse enough, prevailing poor sanitation conditions pose the greatest threat to water points. Previous studies in both urban and rural areas have concluded that contamination from on-site sanitation is a principal cause of contamination of water sources (Howard et al., 2013).
1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of the study is to assess the Environmental and Health Implication of Open Defecation. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out as follows:
- To assess the relationship between sanitation practices and the bacteriological quality of drinking water sources.
- To determine the risk factors contributing to open defecation in the rural environments of the study area.
- To assess the water quality index and multivariate analysis for groundwater quality assessment of villages of rural in Delta State.
1.5 Significance of Study
This study will be of immense benefit to researchers who intend to know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other study.
1.6 Scope of Study
The scope of the research focuses on the Environmental and Health Implication of Open Defecation in Delta State, Nigeria.
1.7 Limitations of the Study
During the course of this study, many things militated against its completion, some of which are:
- Time Constraint: The time frame given to accomplish this project was very short due to school academic calendar and it was carried out under pressure which made the researcher not to implement some necessary features.
- Research material: availability of research material is a major setback to the scope of the study.
- Frequent power failure: This made the researcher append more money on fuel to ensure sustainable power.
- Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet).
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The review of relevant literature is the main topic of this chapter. A literature review covers theoretical and methodological contributions to a certain issue in addition to the state of knowledge at the time of writing. It provides information about the state of the art in relation to the subject you are writing about. It examines the body of work on the chosen subject. The literature evaluation in this study comprises the …
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TABLE OF CONTENTSPRELIMINARY PAGES
- Title page
- Approval page
- Dedication
- Acknowledgement
- Table of Contents
- Abstract
INTRODUCTION
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Background …
- ⋮
LITERATURE REVIEW
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Conceptual Review
- 2.3 Theoretical Framework
- ⋮
- 2.4 Empirical Studies
- 2.5 Research Gaps
- 2.6 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Research Design
- 3.3 Population of Study
- 3.4 Sampling and Sampling Technique
- 3.5 Validation of Research Instrument
- 3.6 Method of Data Collection
- 3.7 Method of Data Analysis
- 3.8 Questionnaire Administration
- 3.9 Ethical Consideration
- 3.10 Statistical Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data
- 4.3 Re-statement of Research Questions
- 4.4 Test of Hypotheses
- 4.5 Discussion of Findings
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Summary of Findings
- 5.3 Conclusion
- 5.4 Recommendation
- 5.5 Suggestion for Further Study
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A - “QUESTIONNAIRE”
Disclaimer for Complete Material Utilization
The displayed research work titled "Environmental and Health Implication of Open Defecation" is stated as a research guideline towards accomplishing your assigned project / seminar research work. All the research materials on this website are ONLY for research purposes and should be used as a guideline in developing your research work. For no reason should you copy word for word as projectlist.com.ng will not be liable for any who copied the material. By ordering the complete research guideline, it signifies that you've accepted our terms of service.
PRELIMINARY PAGES
- Title page
- Approval page
- Dedication
- Acknowledgement
- Table of Contents
- Abstract
INTRODUCTION
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Background …
- ⋮
LITERATURE REVIEW
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Conceptual Review
- 2.3 Theoretical Framework
- ⋮
- 2.4 Empirical Studies
- 2.5 Research Gaps
- 2.6 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Research Design
- 3.3 Population of Study
- 3.4 Sampling and Sampling Technique
- 3.5 Validation of Research Instrument
- 3.6 Method of Data Collection
- 3.7 Method of Data Analysis
- 3.8 Questionnaire Administration
- 3.9 Ethical Consideration
- 3.10 Statistical Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data
- 4.3 Re-statement of Research Questions
- 4.4 Test of Hypotheses
- 4.5 Discussion of Findings
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Summary of Findings
- 5.3 Conclusion
- 5.4 Recommendation
- 5.5 Suggestion for Further Study
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A - “QUESTIONNAIRE”
Disclaimer for Complete Material Utilization
The displayed research work titled "Environmental and Health Implication of Open Defecation" is stated as a research guideline towards accomplishing your assigned project / seminar research work. All the research materials on this website are ONLY for research purposes and should be used as a guideline in developing your research work. For no reason should you copy word for word as projectlist.com.ng will not be liable for any who copied the material. By ordering the complete research guideline, it signifies that you've accepted our terms of service.
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