ESTIMATION OF ORGAN EQUIVALENT AND EFFECTIVE DOSES FROM DIAGNOSTIC X-RAY
ABSTRACT
The radiation dose received by the patient during the radiological examination is essential to prevent risks of exposure.A study was carried out to establish the trend of dose received by patient during x-ray examination in Federal Medical Centre, Keffi in Nasarawa state, Nigeria. Entrance skin doses (ESDs) for a common type of x-ray procedures, namely chest AP/PA (anterior/posterior) were measured. A total of 200 data were collected from patients who were exposed to diagnostic X-ray during their routine chest X-ray examinations. The patent’s skin dose were determined using Edmond’s formula, which is based on the X-ray tube and the radiographic exposure parameters of kVp, mAS, SSD and the total filtration of the beams. The calculated mean skin dose ranges from 0.013 ± 0.01mGy to 0.851±0.023mGy. In general, the ESDs measured for this type of x-ray procedures were found to be lower than or in agreement with the guidance level set by the Nigerian Basic Ionizing Radiation Regulation (NBIRR, 2003) standard and other international bodies and does not pose any significant health risk to the patience or the workers.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Diagnostic radiology is one of the most common fields to use the benefits of X-rays. Minimizing the disadvantages of ionizing radiation is the driving force of radiation protection. A basic principle in radiation protection is the ALARA principle, which is an acronym for as low as reasonably achievable (ICRP 2007). It summarizes the approach to ionizing radiation according to the current knowledge; in the region of low doses, the probability of radiation detriment increases as a function of increasing radiation dose (ICRP 2007). In X-ray imaging, the patient receives a certain amount of radiation energy through absorption processes.
The radiation that passes through the patient is attenuated according to the properties of the organs and tissues. The radiation sensitivities of different organs and tissues vary. The radiation energy absorbed in a tissue or an organ divided by the tissue or organ mass is the organ dose. Organ dose determination is most fundamental part of estimating the radiation risk of an individual. Organ doses cannot be measured directly and the selected method for organ dose determination has a marked impact on the uncertainty related to the organ doses.
As a prelude to other parts of this study, this chapter will discuss the background upon which this study was initiated, the statement of problems that led to this study, the Aim and Objectives of the study. Others are Significance of the study, Scope of work, Limitations of the Study and Definition of technical terms.
1.2 Background of Study
Nowadays human organ imaging is performed by different systems and methods. As the new diagnostic methods including conventional radiography, fluoroscopy, and computed tomography (CT) procedures will continue to provide tremendous benefit to modern health care, radiography is expected to be in progress as well, because it is still a powerful tool with enough benefit for the patients undoubtedly. Therefore, patients’ exposure to radiation has been increased all over the world due to this radiography (The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP publication 103, 2007; European Commission, European Guidance on Estimating Population Doses from Medical X-Ray Procedures. Radiation Protection N.154, 2008; Fazel et al., 2009; Hart et al, 2010; United Nations Scientific Committee Effects Atomic Radiation, 2010).
A wide range of radiation absorbed doses is delivered to patients by the various diagnostic imaging modalities that use ionizing radiation. Even though these procedures are assumed to produce a net benefit, the potential for radiation-induced injuries to the patient exists (The AAPM/RSNA Physics Tutorial for Residents Typical Patient Radiation Doses in Diagnostic Radiology 1, 1999). Since using ionising x-rays is associated with some risk of developing cancer, the basic radiation protection concept or philosophy ALARA states that all exposures must always be kept ‘As Low As Reasonably Achievable’ (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, 1990). So, the knowledge of the radiation dose received by the patient during the radiological examination is essential to prevent risks of exposures that involve a great number of people. Various indicators are used to estimate detriment from cancer and genetic effects of radiation.
According to ICRP 60, the basic quantity associated with the risk of deleterious effects on health is the effective dose that is the valuable and central quantity for dose limitation in the field of radiological protection of the patient (International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1991). This dose descriptor is being increasingly used to determine the quantity of radiation dose received by patient undergoing diagnostic x-ray examinations (Brenner and Huda, 2008; Kharita et al., 2010; Mettler et al, 2008; Osei and Darko, 2013; Shahbazi-Gahrouei and Baradaran-Ghahfarokhi, 2013; Teles et al., 2013). Whereas effective dose (ED) is affected by patient structure and radiological method, as such, the calculation of this quantity is of utmost importance. Because it is almost impossible to directly measure effective dose during clinical procedures, it must be determined indirectly.
In general, indirect estimate of effective dose starts from incident air kerma (Ka,i) measurement as input parameters and uses dedicated conversion coefficients (European Commission, European Guidance on Estimating Population Doses from Medical X-ray Procedures, Radiation Protection N.154, 2008; International Atomic Energy Agency, 2007; International Commission Radiation Units, 2005). Entrance skin dose (ESD) is also an important parameter in accessing the dose received by a patient in a single radiographic exposure. The European Union has identified this physical quantity as one to be monitored as a diagnostic reference level in the hopes of optimizing patient dose (Bushong, 2001 and ICRP, 1991).
The radiation detriment effects can be either deterministic or stochastic. Deterministic effects of radiation are related to high dose levels and cause injury and loss in populations of cells. Deterministic effects have a threshold dose below which no clinically visible effects are observed. The severity of the effect increases as a function of dose. Stochastic effects consist of cancer risk and hereditary effects, and the probability of an effect, but not its severity, increases as a function of dose without a threshold (ICRP 2007). The radiation effect classification, dose limitation concepts, and the definition of detriment and threshold have undergone several changes in the past decades (Hamada & Fujimichi 2014).
Therefore, in Nigeria where the research was carried out, the activities that was conducted is to know the Estimation of Organ Equivalent and Effective Doses From Diagnostic X-Ray.
1.3 Statement of Problems
Investigation revealed that the problems associated with this work were mainly financial constraints encountered during the execution of this project, limited sources of materials and difficulties in acquiring data for analysis.
1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of the study is to establish the trend of dose received by patient during x-ray examination in Federal Medical Centre, Keffi in Nasarawa state, Nigeria. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out as follows:
- To examine the organ diagnostic x-ray from absorbed dose against weight; and
- To evaluate the chest thickness against dose absorbed using diagnostic x-ray.
1.5 Significance of Study
This study will be of immense benefit to other researchers who intend to know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other study.
1.6 Scope of Study
The scope of the research is focused on the Estimation of Organ Equivalent and Effective Doses From Diagnostic X-Ray.
1.7 Limitations of the Study
During the course of this study, many things militated against its completion, some of which are:
- Time Constraint: The time frame given to accomplish this project was very short due to school academic calendar and it was carried out under pressure which made the researcher not to implement some necessary features.
- Research material: availability of research material is a major setback to the scope of the study.
- Frequent power failure: This made the researcher append more money on fuel to ensure sustainable power.
- Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet).
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The review of relevant literature is the main topic of this chapter. A literature review covers theoretical and methodological contributions to a certain issue in addition to the state of knowledge at the time of writing. It provides information about the state of the art in relation to the subject you are writing about. It examines the body of work on the chosen subject. The literature evaluation in this study comprises the …
Procedure for Downloading the PDF (Docx) Material
Estimation of Organ Equivalent and Effective Doses From Diagnostic X-Ray can be downloaded by requesting the full set of materials at the project or seminar cost. The document will be sent via Microsoft Word (MS-Word) format via WhatsApp (e-mail) following payment confirmation.
| Seminar Material Cost ₦3,000 | Project Material Cost ₦5,000 |
Request Complete Material
 | Click here to request the Complete Material via WhatsApp including;
|
Disclaimer for Complete Material Utilization
The displayed research work titled "Estimation of Organ Equivalent and Effective Doses From Diagnostic X-Ray" is stated as a research guideline towards accomplishing your assigned project / seminar research work. All the research materials on this website are ONLY for research purposes and should be used as a guideline in developing your research work. For no reason should you copy word for word as projectlist.com.ng will not be liable for any who copied the material. By ordering the complete research guideline, it signifies that you've accepted our terms of service.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Can this topic “Design and Implementation of Currency Converter for Major Countries of the World” be used for Computer Science (CS) Project?
Yes it can be utilized for research — Currency converter is an application that deals with the rate at which a currency is exchanged for another currency. The aim of the study is to design and implement a Currency Converter for Major Countries of the World. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out as follows to develop an application software that will determined the accurate amount of paper currency using neural network and enable conversion between the currencies mentioned in the scope of study. The motivation that led to the implementation of the proposed system is that in the existing system, human is needed to recognize the amount of the currency and to convert it manually. This is stressful especially to people who aren’t …
Can the material for “Budget Decision in Manufacturing Companies” be used as a guide for Business Administration and Management (BAM) Project?
Yes it can be used — Business Organization is facing shift competition and as a result are adopting every strategy for their survival. One of these strategy is by budgeting the operations. The writer decided to find out wages in which budgeting affects organization and contribute to the profitability of their operation and management efficiency, thus the topic. “Budget Decision in Manufacturing Company” Chapter one brought to line light the general problems facing the Nigeria economy and the resultant effect in our manufacturing companies which made obvious the need for adequate budgetary system. Chapter two received the related literature of budgeting the concept, historical background, I definitions and its various usage by different people it equally discussed the entire budgetary procedure from the propagation stage to the point …
Can the material for “Students’ and Teachers’ Perception of Counseling Needs of Secondary School Students” be used as a guide for Education Project?
Yes it can be used — Counselling needs are needs of a student that are required to resolve his/her problems which he/she confronts in day to day life situations and also to enrich his personal development. The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers’ and students’ perception of counselling needs of secondary school students in Ijebu North Local Government Area of Ogun State. Therefore, related literature which dealt with the teachers’ and students’ perception of counselling needs of secondary school students, was also reviewed as part of this study. The study employed a descriptive survey. Two research instruments were used in this study, teachers’ perception questionnaire (TPQ) and students’ perception questionnaire (SPQ) were used as the instrument for data collection; Using simple random sampling techniques, two …
Can the material for “Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility on the Achievement of Organizational Objective” be used as a guide for Business Administration and Management (BAM) Project?
Yes it can be used — This research studied the Impact of Corporate social Responsibility on the achievement of organizational objectives. Chapter one of this study introduced the topic stating the research problem, the purpose of the study which is aimed at examining, evaluating corporate social Responsibility and achievement of organizational objectives. It also include research questions which one of it is; does the benefit of being socially responsible surpass the cost? A review of different literatures in relation to the study was considered in chapter two, in which there were several argument for and against amongst in which many consumers and customers believed that most social responsibility activities do not pay in their own way because the cost of providing the social responsibility is built …
Can the material for “Socio-Economic Effects of Graduate Unemployment in Urban Centres” be used as a guide for Public Administration (PA) Project?
Yes it can be used — Graduate unemployment in Nigeria Urban Centres has reached an alarming proportion. This study therefore investigated the socio-economic effects of graduate unemployment in urban centres using Kogi State as a case study. It examined the socio-economic effects of graduate unemployment both on the individual and the society in general, with the view to finding solution to graduate unemployment which will be useful to both government and non-governmental organization. The data for the study was collected through the questionnaire method; the research also interviewed a few highly placed and widely experienced individuals whose valuable contributions enabled the researcher to grasp the tropical development of graduate unemployment in Nigeria since independence. These findings indicate that unemployment is a distasteful experience to the individual …
Can this topic “Unemployment and the Nigeria Economy” be used for Business Administration and Management (BAM) Project?
Yes it can be utilized for research — This research was conducted to investigate unemployment and the Nigeria economy a case study of Ovia South West Local Government Area of Edo State capital. In the course of carrying out the work, the researcher looked at the type of unemployment, some of which include frictional unemployment, seasonal unemployment, cyclical unemployment and residual unemployment. The researcher also focuses her attention on reviewing related literature. More so, it was revealed that some of the causes of unemployment are too many in the Nigeria economy. Irrelevance of the course studies, the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. However, some recommendations were made in the closing chapter among which are; Government should restructure our education system to suit the demands …
Can the material for “Co-Operative Federations; Opportunity and Threats in a Capitalist Economy” be used as a guide for Economics Project?
Yes it can be used — Capitalism is seen as an economic system or market economy was there is free allocation of market resources and free private participation in economic activities. The capitalist concept is manifested in the early 19th century, the period of industrial revolution. Since this period to the present date, capitalism has controlled the economic of some developed countries and the undeveloped ones, such countries include Europe, South Africa, America, Israel, Japan, and Nigeria. Despite the effort of the government to help these countries to regulate the excess of capitalism. In the wake of the excesses of capitalism, which resulted, the suffering of the poor masses, co-operative emerged. The co-operative concept tends to oppose the capitalists mod of business practices. Co-operative is a movement, …
Can the material for “Effective Communication as a Means for Achieving Organizational Goal and Objectives” be used as a guide for Business Administration and Management (BAM) Project?
Yes it can be used — This research work centres on “Effective Communication as a tool for achieving organizational goals and objectives” the researcher examined the historical background of the study and the subject matter, the objective, significance and the scope of the research was well examined in the first chapter. In the second chapter the researcher was able to reveal some selected views of authors on what “Effective Communication is, the basic concepts, systems, process, characteristics of communication flow, importance of the study as well as the used in any business organizations. The researcher highlights the method of data collection and also the instrument used in analyzing data. The data gathered were analyzed in chapter four and hypothesis formulated was tested. The researcher finally draws …
Can the material for “The Impact of Risk Management Towards Effective Strategies for Financial Management” be used as a guide for Accountancy / Accounting Project?
Yes it can be used — Customers of the banks expect their bankers to provide them with loans and advances to make up any short fall in their funds requirement for transactional motive. This project is sub-divided into five chapters, which focuses on risk management in Nigeria Banking Sector. Questionnaires were distributed to collect the relevant information from the respondents, percentage and chi-square method were employed and hypotheses testing was carried out, it was discovered that there is risk in the bank sector which enabled the researcher to conclude that there is risk in bank lending and because the rules of lending are not often followed when granting credit facilities to their customers. It was however recommended that there is need to employ more competent staff …
Is the topic “Administration of Industrial Conflict in Higher Institutions in Nigeria” recommended for Public Administration (PA) Project?
Yes it is highly recommended — The purpose of this study is to examine the system of administration of industrial conflict in higher institution in Nigeria with a case study of Federal Polytechnic nekede, Owerri, Imo State. The result of findings shows that individual conflicts in Nigerian higher institutions occurs in the forms of lockout, strike, work - to-rule and lock-in. The factors responsible for these include workers demand for improved welfare scheme, governments refusal to comply and breach of terms of settlements disputes. Such conflicts are resolved through collective bargaining, vnilateral actions of the government and appointments of mediator and conciliation. The problem in industrial conflicts administration includes the attitude of the institution authorities, government union leaders. The effect of industrial conflict in Nigeria higher …