AN APPRAISAL OF THE LEVEL OF MALONDIALDEHYDE, VITAMIN C AND VITAMIN E IN SMOKERS AND NON SMOKERS
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Smoking is a well-known related factor for many health problems in a human being through different ways of exposure. Malondialdehyde (MDA) is one of many low molecular weight end-products of lipid peroxidation; it is as an index of lipid peroxidation. Uric acid is one of the endogenous oxidant-antioxidant paradoxes. Smoking has been proved to be linked to many cancers, including lung and gastrointestinal and bladder cancers (Gandini et al., 2008). Smokers exhibit increased numbers of lung macrophages, and these cells are likely recruited to the lung to clear the particulate material associated with tobacco smoke. These macrophage dysfunctions likely contribute to the immunosuppression that is associated with tobacco and smoking.
As a prelude to other parts of this study, this chapter will discuss the background upon which this study was initiated, the statement of problems that led to this study, the Aim and Objectives of the study. Others are Significance of the study, Scope of work, Research hypothesis and questions, Limitations of the Study and Definition of technical terms.
1.2 Background of Study
Tobacco smoking is a practice of burning tobacco and inhaling the smoke (consisting of gaseous phases and particles). A more broad definition may include taking tobacco smoke into the mouth, and then releasing it, as is done by some with tobacco pipes and cigars. The practice may have begun as early as 5000-3000 BC (Nagarajet al., 2014).Cigarette smoking is probably the most addictive and dependence producing form of object-specific, self-administered gratification known to man. According to present estimates, tobacco is responsible for causing more than 5 million deaths every year (World Health Organization, 2008).
The harmful effects of cigarette smoking on human health have been well documented. It has been known that cigarette smoke carries around 4000 chemicals including toxic metals, poisonous gases and free radicals (Schumacher et al., 2009). Amongst these constituents, free radicals are considered to be more dangerous as these owing to their unpaired electron are highly reactive and can cause oxidative damage to bio-molecules and bio-membranes (Senet al., 2010).
Smoking plays an important role in disturbing the antioxidant balance. Normally blood contains a healthy complement of antioxidants that keep oxidative damage to a minimum. Tobacco smoke contains abundant reactive oxygen species and also activated neutrophils released due to smoking also add to the pool of reactive oxygen species which deplete these antioxidant mechanisms leading to tissue damage (Kumar et al., 2010).
Malondialdehyde is a organic compound with the formula CH2 (CHO). This reactive species occurs naturally and is a marker for oxidative stress. Reactive oxygen species degrade polyunsaturated lipids present on cell membrane forming malondialdehyde. This aldehyde product is used as a biomarker to measure the level of oxidative stress in an organism (Nagaraj et al., 2014).
Antioxidants depletion or deficiency may contribute to oxidative stress. Antioxidants not only protect against the direct injurious effects of oxidants, but also alter the inflammatory events that play an important role in the pathogenesis of oxidative stress related diseases (MacNee, 2010). Vitamin C is a water soluble free radical scavenger, can directly scavenge O2 and OH- radicals and help to neutralize physiological oxidant burden created by both exogenous and endogenous sources (Rai and Phadke, 2006).
Vitamin E, a well-known chain-breaking antioxidant in cell membrane protects the membrane against lipid per-oxidation either directly by scavenging the free radicals or indirectly by controlling the reduced glutathione levels. Vitamin E itself is kept in reduced state by vitamin C, another antioxidant vitamin (Shah et al., 2015).
Therefore, in Nigeria where the research was carried out, the activities that was conducted is to evaluate the Level of Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Malondialdehyde in Male Smokers and Non Smokers.
1.3 Statement of Problems
Tobacco smoking has been claimed to cause a wide variety of health problems such as atherosclerosis, vascular diseases, including coronary heart disease and stroke, mutagenesis of exposed cells, and cancer in the upper respiratory system as well as lungs. One of the putative mechanisms of the hazardous effect of tobacco smoking is oxidative stress, which is caused by the numerous reactive chemicals both in tar and gas phases (Munnia et al., 2004 and Jain et al., 2009).
1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of the study is to evaluate the Level of Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Malondialdehyde in Male Smokers and Non Smokers. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out as follows:
- To determine the levels of malondialdehyde in Male Smokers and Non Smokers;
- To determine the levels of vitamin C in Male Smokers and Non Smokers;
- To determine the levels of vitamin E in Male Smokers and Non Smokers.
1.5 Research Questions
The study came up with research questions so as to be able to ascertain the above stated objectives. The specific research questions for the study are stated below as follows:
- What are the levels of malondialdehyde in Male Smokers and Non Smokers?
- What are the levels of vitamin C in Male Smokers and Non Smokers?
- What are the levels of vitamin E in Male Smokers and Non Smokers?
1.6 Research Hypothesis
In order to pursue the objective of this study, the following generalized statements have been designed to guide and aids in obtaining the result for the experiment to be conducted. For this work, the null hypothesis will be represented with H0 while the alternative hypothesis will be represented with hypothesis H1.
Hypothesis One
- H0: There is no significant increase in the Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Malondialdehyde level in smokers compared to non-smokers.
- H1: There is a significant increase in the Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Malondialdehyde level in smokers compared to non-smokers.
Hypothesis Two
- H0: Smoking does not affect the vitamin C, Vitamin E and Malondialdehyde levels in the human body
- H1: Smoking affects the vitamin C, Vitamin E and Malondialdehyde levels in the human body
1.7 Significance of Study
The act of smoking has been a contributing effect to so many physiologic disorder; with enormous release of free radicals and important biochemical intermediates, they have been implicated in a very large number of human diseases including ischemic heart disease, cancer, diabetes mellitus, cataract, respiratory diseases and ageing. Some studies have been done to compare the level of lipid per-oxidation products and antioxidant vitamin among smokers and non-smokers but there is scarcity of such study in Africa. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to assess the levels of lipid per-oxidation product, Malondialdehyde and antioxidants (vitamin C and vitamin E) in smokers and non-smokers.
This study will be of immense benefit to other researchers who intend to know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other study.
1.8 Scope of Study
The study focuses on the Evaluation of the Level of Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Malondialdehyde in Male Smokers and Non Smokers in Nigeria.
1.9 Limitations of the Study
During the course of this study, many things militated against its completion, some of which are:
- Time Constraint: The time frame given to accomplish this project was very short due to school academic calendar and it was carried out under pressure which made the researcher not to implement some necessary features.
- Research material: availability of research material is a major setback to the scope of the study.
- Frequent power failure: This made the researcher append more money on fuel to ensure sustainable power.
- Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet).
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The review of relevant literature is the main topic of this chapter. A literature review covers theoretical and methodological contributions to a certain issue in addition to the state of knowledge at the time of writing. It provides information about the state of the art in relation to the subject you are writing about. It examines the body of work on the chosen subject. The literature evaluation in this study comprises the …
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TABLE OF CONTENTSPRELIMINARY PAGES
- Title page
- Approval page
- Dedication
- Acknowledgement
- Table of Contents
- Abstract
INTRODUCTION
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Background …
- ⋮
LITERATURE REVIEW
- 2.1 Introduction
- ⋮
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
- 3.1 Introduction
- ⋮
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Results
- ⋮
- 4.3 Discussion of Findings
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Summary
- 5.3 Conclusion
- 5.4 Recommendation
REFERENCES
Disclaimer for Complete Material Utilization
The displayed research work titled "An Appraisal of the Level of Malondialdehyde, Vitamin C and Vitamin E in Smokers and Non Smokers" is stated as a research guideline towards accomplishing your assigned project / seminar research work. All the research materials on this website are ONLY for research purposes and should be used as a guideline in developing your research work. For no reason should you copy word for word as projectlist.com.ng will not be liable for any who copied the material. By ordering the complete research guideline, it signifies that you've accepted our terms of service.
PRELIMINARY PAGES
- Title page
- Approval page
- Dedication
- Acknowledgement
- Table of Contents
- Abstract
INTRODUCTION
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Background …
- ⋮
LITERATURE REVIEW
- 2.1 Introduction
- ⋮
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
- 3.1 Introduction
- ⋮
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Results
- ⋮
- 4.3 Discussion of Findings
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Summary
- 5.3 Conclusion
- 5.4 Recommendation
REFERENCES
Disclaimer for Complete Material Utilization
The displayed research work titled "An Appraisal of the Level of Malondialdehyde, Vitamin C and Vitamin E in Smokers and Non Smokers" is stated as a research guideline towards accomplishing your assigned project / seminar research work. All the research materials on this website are ONLY for research purposes and should be used as a guideline in developing your research work. For no reason should you copy word for word as projectlist.com.ng will not be liable for any who copied the material. By ordering the complete research guideline, it signifies that you've accepted our terms of service.
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